No Comfort In Comfort Foods During Tough Economic Times, Study Finds

Most of us can name our favorite "comfort foods" and believe that we are most prone to seek them out during times of stress and upheaval—like moving to a new town or starting (or ending!) a job. Contrary to this well-engrained belief, this research shows the surprising result that our choices of old favorites happen at the opposite times that we predict.

The data here show that when peoples' lives are characterized by high levels of change and upheaval, they are less likely to choose favorite "comfort" choices and more likely to choose new, unfamiliar products…even though they predict just the opposite! This common mis-prediction can lead to negative consequences for consumers in that it suggests people may choose the wrong timing for making positive new changes in one's life.

What are comfort foods and when do we choose them?

Comfort foods are often satisfyingly high-calorie fare, but typically our comfort foods reflect a deeper nostalgic familiarity—comfort foods are those that we have a long history with, whether it is an old family recipe for meatloaf or a long-time favorite treat from a particular restaurant. And one can argue that the comfort food practice goes far beyond food. Consumers may believe that they are more likely to rent favorite movies, listen to familiar music, and stick with engrained consumption habits (e.g., smoking, a daily latte) when they are otherwise surrounded by many new or changing environmental factors. In this research, this commonly held intuition or "lay theory" is examined, asking, "Do we really favor familiar things in times of change?"

Choice of comfort foods is opposite what we predict

Several studies investigated this question. In a prediction study, participants were told about a person who was described either as being in a very stable life situation or in the midst of many changes. Participants were then asked to predict whether this person would choose either a highly familiar or unfamiliar version of a similar snack (a very popular and well-like American potato chip in familiar flavors or an unknown British potato "crisp" in exotic flavors like Camembert and Plum).

Participants predicted that the stable person would choose the exotic unfamiliar crisp and the person in a state of change would choose the familiar chip. They explained their predictions by saying that the stable person would have more time and energy to try new things and the person experiencing change would be more interested in choosing a known or "sure thing" option. However, in a separate choice study, participants were asked to rate the level of change and upheaval in their own lives and then, in a later task, given the opportunity to choose either the familiar American chip or the unfamiliar British crisp.

Opposite to the predictions, participants who were experiencing more change were less likely to choose the old familiar favorite and more likely to choose the new and unfamiliar option. Thus, this result is called the "comfort food fallacy" effect. It does not say that comfort foods are not enjoyable, but rather that we don't seem to seek them out when we think we do. Contrary to our expectations, comfort foods appear to be chosen more often in comfortable times.

The result extends beyond food

This choice study was repeated with non-food options (such as downloading songs from favorite artists versus new artists or watching a favorite movie versus a new and not previously seen movie). The results again show the same comfort food fallacy effect—people experiencing more change were less likely to choose old favorites.

Choice of new options can be increased by increasing perceived change

A final study investigated whether it was possible to influence peoples' choices of familiar favorites versus new options. The results show that by manipulating the perceived level of change in a person's life, the likelihood of choosing a new option was also manipulated. Participants were asked to list either eight big changes in their lives or two big changes. Participants who listed more changes were subsequently more likely to choose the unfamiliar new option versus the old favorite option. Further, this study showed that the effect did not depend on whether the big changes listed by the participants were positive or negative—the effect happened in both cases.

Implications for consumer welfare

What does this mean for consumers? First, it suggests the fallacy of our "lay theory" of comfort food. When we actively choose comfort foods (or other comfortable things) they may indeed feel good. But this research shows that we are wrong when we think we always seek out old comfortable favorites in times of change and upheaval. Rather, the studies show that we are automatically more open to new options in times of change and upheaval. In states of change, we may find ourselves in a "change mindset," automatically more attuned to new options in our environment. It may be that this occurs for two reasons: first, big changes often necessitate new choices and we may, therefore, pay more attention to new options in general and, second, big changes often break the old habitual cues that tied us to familiar choices or actions.

If change begets change, as this research suggests, then one implication of this work is that it suggests when we will be most successful in adopting positive new changes. Many people believe that they shouldn't try too many new things at once. For example they may believe that a time of change is not a good time to start a new exercise program or try other new things, thinking instead to wait until they "settle in." This research suggests that a time of change (new job, new town, new situation) may be an ideal time to adopt desired changes because we are inherently more open to new options then. Times of change and upheaval may also be surprisingly good times to break away from unhealthy comforts like smoking or junk food. Recognizing the comfort food fallacy may help us better manage the positive new changes we make in our lives.

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You Decide: Making a Good Decision or Avoiding a Bad One?

We feel good about a purchase if we believe we've made a decision that's in line with our goals. A new study in the Journal of Consumer Research examines the ways consumers evaluate brand features to make choices.

"When there is a fit between people's goals and how information is acquired, these feelings are positive and thus enhance brand evaluations," write authors Echo Wen Wan (University of Hong Kong), Jiewen Hong (Hong Kong University of Science and Technology), and Brian Sternthal (Northwestern University).

According to the researchers, even seemingly complicated decisions fall into two categories: Either we want to make a good decision that will help us get ahead in our life—the accomplishment goal—or we want to avoid making a mistake—the safety goal. Depending on the situation, we may switch decision processes.

In four separate studies carried out in Hong Kong and Chicago, the authors tested subjects' reactions to varying marketing copy to determine how favorably they would rate products. They found that participants with accomplishment goals responded more positively to ads that conveyed a sense of rapid progress. An example of this would be reporting several brand features on each of several successive pages of a magazine.

"Those whose goal was accomplishment evaluated the brand more favorably when information was acquired in a manner that prompted a sense of rapid progress toward a choice than when the acquisition was perceived to provide an opportunity to consider all of the information in detail. In contrast, those with a safety goal evaluated the brand more favorably when they perceived that they had an opportunity to consider all information in detail," the authors explain.
"These findings have important implications for designing persuasive messages," write the authors. They believe marketers could boost product perceptions and potential sales by matching ad strategies to consumers' likely goals. For example, since toothpastes typically are used to prevent tooth decay (a safety goal), ads should use a simultaneous presentation of information. Teeth whiteners, which are used to gain a brighter smile (a cosmetic accomplishment), should be advertised in ways that make consumers perceive rapid progress in their decision processes.

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Advil or Excedrin? New Model Helps Predict Product Choices

In today’s world, consumers face a dizzying array of product choices. Most often, there’s not just one ideal product; it depends on the individual and the context. A beer might be perfect for relaxing after work; a sports beverage after jogging. And a teenager’s ideal beverage isn’t the same as a business executive’s.

A new study in the Journal of Consumer Research shows that multiple ideals can be accurately discovered and then used to predict the preferences of various segments of the population. The authors, Wayne S. DeSarbo (Pennsylvania State University), A. Selin Atalay (Bilkent University, Turkey), David LeBaron, and Simon J. Blanchard (both Pennsylvania State University), developed a model that locates the ideal product in a given situation on a graph.

This new approach has been sorely needed to understand the complexity of how products meet consumers’ needs. According to the authors, “Consumers can have more than one ideal product in a given product category. It is therefore essential to understand this aspect of consumer preferences because it can affect how products are promoted to consumers, how new products are designed, and how products are priced and bundled.”

The authors used their model to graph the ideal over-the-counter pain reliever—a $2.1 billion industry with 11 major brands. They identified three groupings of people—“price-conscious consumers,” “the athletic segment,” and “the anti-medication segment.” They collected consumers’ judgments on the painkillers’ effectiveness in various contexts, such as backaches or flu. Using a survey, the model divided up the market into the various segments and showed significant differences among the different consumer types and situations.

For example, price-conscious consumers consider Advil and Tylenol the most effective painkiller overall, but if suffering from a backache, they would be more likely to choose aspirin, or Excedrin for a headache. These differences have been hidden by simpler models.

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Bikini-Clad Women Make Men Impatient

Images of sexy women tend to whet men’s sexual appetite. But stimulating new research in the Journal of Consumer Research says there’s more than meets the eye. A recent study shows that men who watched sexy videos or handled lingerie sought immediate gratification—even when they were making decisions about money, soda, and candy.

Authors Bram Van den Bergh, Siegfried DeWitte, and Luk Warlop (KULeuven, Belgium) found that the desire for immediate rewards increased in men who touched bras, looked at pictures of beautiful women, or watched video clips of young women in bikinis running through a park.

“It seems that sexual appetite causes a greater urgency to consume anything rewarding,” the authors suggest. Thus, the activation of sexual desire appears to spill over into other brain systems involved in reward-seeking behaviors, even the cognitive desire for money.

“After they touched a bra, men are more likely to be content with a smaller immediate monetary reward,” writes Bram Van den Bergh, one of the study’s authors. “Prior exposure to sexy stimuli may influence the choice between chocolate cake or fruit for dessert.”

The authors believe the stimuli bring men’s minds to the present as opposed to the future. “The study demonstrates that bikinis cause a shift in time preference: Men live in the here and now when they glance at pictures featuring women in lingerie. That is, men will choose the immediately available rewards and seek immediate gratification after sex cue exposure.”

Do all straight men respond the same? Actually, no. Some men are highly responsive to rewards while others are not so sensitive, and the more reward-sensitive men are the impatient ones.

In fact, doing a task designed to inspire financial satisfaction reduced the bikini-inspired impatience, just as feeling full reduces food cravings. Men may want to be aware of bikinis’ effects on their bank accounts and waistlines.

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Improved Governance Needed To Realize Nanotech's Benefits

Without an improved governance structure, the benefits of nanotechnology may be difficult to fully realize because the public will not trust the cutting-edge technology, says David Rejeski, director of the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies (PEN). Rejeski testifies on Thursday, April 24, before the Senate subcommittee on technology and innovation.

"Public trust is the 'dark horse' in nanotechnology's future," says Rejeski in his testimony. "If government and industry do not work to build public confidence in nanotechnology, consumers may reach for the 'No-Nano' label in the future and investors will put their money elsewhere. Public perceptions about risks -- real and perceived -- can have large economic impacts. For example, the European Union's ban on genetically modified foods, driven largely by public concerns, cost American farmers an estimated $300 million annually in lost sales and much more in products that never made it to the marketplace."

Lawmakers are currently discussing amendments to and reauthorization of the 21st Century Nanotechnology Research & Development Act, which helps sets the roadmap for the annual $1.5 billion federal spending on nanotechnology research that is vital to ensuring the
technology's success.

Nanotechnology is the ability to measure, see, manipulate and manufacture things usually between 1 and 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter; a human hair is roughly 100,000 nanometers wide. By 2014, Lux Research projects that $2.6 trillion in global manufactured goods will incorporate nanotechnology, or about 15 percent of total global
output.

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More Than 875 Million Consumers Have Shopped Online

More than 85 percent of the world's online population has used the Internet to make a purchase -- increasing the market for online shopping by 40 percent in the past two years -- according to the latest Nielsen Global Online Survey on Internet shopping habits. Globally, more than half of Internet users have made at least one purchase online in the past month, according to Nielsen.

"The Internet is no longer a niche technology -- it is mass media and an utterly integral part of modern life. Almost no aspect of life remains untouched by online media. As our lives become more fractured and cluttered, it isn't surprising that consumers turn to the unrivaled convenience of the Internet when it comes to researching and buying products," says Jonathan Carson, president, international, Nielsen Online.

"When The Nielsen Company conducted its first global survey into Internet shopping trends two years ago, approximately 10 percent of the world's population (627 million) had shopped online," says Bruce Paul, vice president, customized research, Nielsen U.S. "Within two years, this number has increased by approximately 40 percent (to 875 million)."

Among Internet users, the highest percentage shopping online is found in South Korea, where 99 percent of those with Internet access have used it to shop, followed by the UK (97 percent), Germany (97 percent), Japan (97 percent) with the U.S. eighth, at 94 percent. Additionally, in South Korea, 79 percent of these Internet users have shopped in the past month, followed by the UK (76 percent) and Switzerland (67 percent) with the U.S. at 57 percent.

Globally, the most popular and purchased items over the Internet are books (41 percent purchased in the past three months), clothing/accessories/shoes (36 percent), videos / DVDs / games (24 percent), airline tickets (24 percent) and electronic equipment (23 percent).

Among Germany's Internet users, 55 percent say they bought books, 42 percent had bought Clothes/Accessories/Shoes and one in four had purchased Music/Videos/DVD's in the past three months.

During the same period, among Internet users in the UK, 45 percent bought books online, followed by Videos/DVDs/Games (44 percent), Clothing/Accessories/Shoes (38 percent), music (37 percent) and one in four Internet shoppers also purchased and airline tickets/reservations online.

Among U.S. Internet users in the past month, 41 percent bought Clothing/Shoes/Accessories, 38 percent bought books and one in three Internet shoppers bought Videos/DVDs/Games.

The number of Internet consumers buying books over the Internet has increased 7 percent in the past two years but the biggest increase has been in Clothing / Accessories / Shoes which increased from 20 percent to 36 percent. "Some of the biggest buyers of books on the Internet are from developing countries -- China, Brazil, Vietnam and Egypt -- indicating massive growth potential for online retailers that can specifically target these fast-growing markets," says Carson.

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Compare UK Credit Card Offers Side By Side

The Motley Fool's U.K. website is offering consumers looking for U.K. credit cards a new tool to find the right credit card for them.

This web page lines up many offers from leading credit card issuers with terms and conditions lined up side-by-side so that consumers can compare the offers, find the appropriate one for them and then apply for a credit card right from the site if they desire.

You may also search on the site for interest free credit cards.

The website also offers links to good information online, particularly for those new to credit card use. This should answer many questions and hopefully keep consumers out of trouble and encourage responsible credit card use. In fact, there is a link to "Pitfalls of Credit Card use" that everyone should read.

This post was brought to you by your friends at Fool.co.uk.

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Video: Credit Card Firms Tighten Rules

Credit card firms are cutting down on the amount of time people have interest-free credit. Anyone with a credit card should watch this informative video to know what's going on.

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Report: Consumers in a Festive Mood as the Holiday Season Approaches

U.S. households are expected to spend an average of $471 on gifts during the holiday season, up from last year's estimate of $449, The Conference Board reports.

The survey of Christmas gift spending intentions covers a nationally representative sample of 5,000 U.S. households. It was conducted for The Conference Board in November by TNS, a custom research company.

"Consumers are in a festive mood heading into the Thanksgiving holiday," says Lynn Franco, director of The Conference Board Consumer Research Center. "And, it appears they are willing to spend more than last year, though retailers can still expect a fair share of bargain hunters will be lining up for the traditional kickoff this Friday."

The top Christmas spenders will be East South Central households (Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Tennessee) who intend to spend $583. Lowest Christmas spending will be in the West North Central region (Iowa, Kansas, Minnesota, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, and South Dakota) where consumers intend to spend $397 on Christmas gifts.

One-third of all households will spend $500 or more on Christmas gifts, with 35 percent spending $200-$500 and the remaining 31 percent planning to spend less than $200.

This year, 38 percent of all consumers will buy Christmas gifts on the Internet, the same percentage as a year ago. Books top the list of online Christmas buying, with 40 percent saying they will buy books as gifts.

Apparel and footwear came in second with 39 percent of consumers intending to purchase these gifts online. Toys/games rank third as online Christmas buying choices, followed closely by movie videos and DVDs.

Of the 38 percent who said they purchased Christmas gifts last year on the Internet, 91 percent said they were satisfied with their online buying experience.

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Video: Consumers' Concerns for Economy

Economist Ethan Harris of Lehman Brothers speaks to Kelsey Hubbard about consumers' concerns for the current economic conditions.

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Consumer Demand Flavors Food Import Safety Issues

An ever-changing U.S. consumer who enjoys the convenience of ready-to-eat produce and seasonable fruits during the dead of winter has brought new challenges to food import safety, experts say.

With U.S. food imports set to top more than $2 trillion this year and expected to triple by 2015, a panel on food safety commissioned by President Bush met at Texas A&M University to discuss ways to strengthen the national and global import infrastructure.

Dr. Andrew von Eschenbach, Food and Drug Administration commissioner, says the nation’s consumer is one who “expects to eat strawberries in February.”

That has led to more change and complexity among how food is processed and delivered into the U.S. “This nation and the people we serve, and their health that’s so critically important, is threatened - not that we haven’t been doing a good job,” he says. “In fact, we’ve been doing an incredibly good job. But the world is rapidly changing around us. Although we have been the gold standard (in food safety), we must respond and be prepared for new challenges that are emerging from radical changes.”

Texas Agriculture Commissioner Todd Staples says “consumers’ tastes and preferences are changing. “They are demanding specialty products from around the world, seasonal products such as fruits and vegetables,” he says.

The working group, comprised of senior officials from 12 federal departments and agencies, is charged to report an action plan by mid-November. Additional information on the panel’s activities can be found at http://www.importsafety.gov.

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Survey Finds Three-Quarters of Americans Celebrate - and Spend on - Halloween

A new survey released by Visa Inc. shows that seventy three percent of Americans celebrate -- and spend on -- Halloween. According to the survey, among those who celebrate Halloween, the average will spend $40 on candy and decorations. Parents with children under 18 will spend $54 on candy and decorations while those without children under 18 will spend $32. Of mention, Dads tend to go all out, spending $63, while moms are more conservative, spending $46.

"You wouldn't think you'd have to budget for something as 'fun' as Halloween. But I believe all expenditures, large and small, are better planned for in advance," said personal finance expert and best-selling author Jean Chatzky. "Whether you are buying candy or a car, planning a
budget is critical to staying in overall good financial health."

Additional findings in the survey include:

• Men ($46) who celebrate Halloween report spending $12 more than
  women ($34).
• Younger people ($44) say they spend more than those 55 and over
  ($31).
• Those who live in rural areas ($49) spend $10 more on average than
  people living in urban areas ($39) and $13 more than suburbanites ($36).

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Consumers Will Still Buy China-Made Toys, Online Poll Says

Consumers say they will buy toys this holiday season- including toys made in China, despite recent safety-related recalls of popular toys made there by leading manufacturers.

A recent consumer survey by online toy retailer, eToys.com, finds that 37% plan to spend the same amount or more on toys this holiday season compared to previous years. While 59% of those surveyed believe toys made outside the U.S. are less safe than those made in America, 43% of respondents say they will purchase toys this holiday season regardless of the country of origin. Only 32% indicated they won't buy toys made in China. Just 25% of those surveyed say they will buy only toys made in America.

Additional findings from the 2007 eToys.com consumer toy safety survey include:

-- Do consumers associate familiar brand names with toy safety? Fifty-three percent of respondents believe toys from major toy manufacturers are generally safer than toys from smaller ones, and 56% say they will purchase toys only made by companies they know this
holiday season.

-- Who's responsible for toy safety and who will pay the cost? When asked by eToys.com who bears the responsibility for ensuring toy safety in the U.S., 43% of those polled think a federal agency has the primary responsibility for guaranteeing toy safety, followed by 31% who think it's the job of U.S.-based toy companies. Only 2% of those polled think an overseas factory is responsible for the safety of toys sold in the U.S.

-- Is money an issue when it comes to toy safety? Forty-five percent of consumers responding to the eToys.com poll say they are willing to pay more for toys made in America, with 35% of respondents willing to pay up to 10% more than the current retail price. Slightly more than a
third of participants, however, said they are not willing to pay more for toys made in the U.S.

-- Consumers reflect on the current state of toy safety. Consumers polled by eToys.com perceive toys made in the U.S., Canada and Europe to be the safest. Conversely, they feel toys made in China are the least safe, followed by Southeast Asia and India. Also, despite the recent
toy recalls -- 69% of those surveyed say toys are safer now than when they were children.

-- Are parents' concerns in the right place? The eToys survey respondents ranked hazardous chemicals as the greatest threat posed by toys to the health and safety of children, followed by lead paint and toys containing sharp pieces. Choking hazards from small parts, which
according to the U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) pose the greatest safety risk, ranked fourth on the list of potential hazards, followed by "breaks easily" and "contains small magnets."

-- Are toy labels taken seriously? When asked by eToys.com to interpret age labeling on toy packages, a majority of parents -- 59% -- correctly stated that age labels indicate the toy is safe for play by children in the indicated range. However, more than a third of those surveyed incorrectly stated that age labels indicate the intellectual capacity required to play with the toys.
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When Taking a Long Time is Seen as a Good Thing

Consumers often use the length of time a service takes as a measure of its quality. The longer a session lasts, the better the value. Indeed, a new study shows that this holds true even when judging something primarily by its duration can backfire – for example when a longer exercise program is actually less effective than a shorter regimen or for a lock-picking service. In a series of real-world and lab studies, the researchers reveal how consumers misjudge situations in which longer isn’t necessarily better.

“This research demonstrates that consumers tend to use the duration of a service as a basis for their evaluation of the service,” write Catherine W. M. Yeung (University of Singapore) and Dilip Soman (University of Toronto). “Although consumers may understand that the duration of the service in itself does not determine its value, they tend to believe in a positive correlation between the two.”

For example, in a real-world study with surprising results, the researchers found that consumers evaluated the price of a lock-picking service as a better value when the service took longer than when the lock was picked faster. When paired with price information, longer service periods were viewed more favorably than shorter service periods – even if duration should have nothing to do with quality or if faster service might be considered more efficient.

“We propose that consumers rely on the duration heuristic [judgment based on time] because it simplifies the evaluation process,” Yeung and Soman explain. “In particular, the duration heuristic is most likely to be seen when the duration of the service experience is evaluable relative to other features and when duration is considered in relation to price.”

Crucially, when no price information is given, time is not a factor in consumer evaluations, the researchers found. A consumer who does not know what to expect from a 60-minute physical training program will be unlikely to judge the program based on its duration. However, introducing a dollar amount allows consumers to make a price-per-minute assessment – and leads many consumers to prefer the longer session, even when there is no benefit to taking more time.

“Our position is that in general, the use of heuristics should not be regarded as irrational. . . . Human beings use heuristics because they are smart – they come up with shortcuts to simplify decisions that are less important so that they can spend more resources on decisions that are more important,” the researchers write.

They continue: “Marketers who plan to improve the efficiency of their services should, therefore, make it very explicit to their customers that the shorter duration of their services is an effort to improve the efficiency of their services.”

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How Consumers Miscalculate Sale Prices

Quick: You’re walking by a store window and you see a sign that says, “20% off the original price plus an additional 25% off the already reduced sale price.” So, how much is the discount" Consumers often mistakenly think the total discount is 45% off the original price when, in fact, the true discount is 40%. A thought-provoking new study from the October issue of the Journal of Consumer Research explores why consumers frequently think a double discount is a better deal than a single discount of the same total magnitude.

“Retailers frequently use the strategy of double discounts for their regular promotions or to induce customers to open a credit card account with them. Such errors in peoples’ judgments of the net effect of multiple price discounts . . . have implications for a variety of marketing settings including advertising, promotion, pricing, and public policy,” write Haipeng (Allan) Chen (University of Miami) and Akshay Rao (University of Minnesota).

Prior studies have shown that even math teachers frequently have trouble calculating percentages. In the first experiment, the researchers found that 59 percent of the respondents – students at a large university – erroneously added the two percentages to calculate the overall discount. Only 26 percent of students got the answer right.

As not everyone was prone to the miscalculation effect, the researchers then sought to identify the situations that help counter calculation error. They first incentivized one group of participants, offering $2 for correct answers. The rate of computational error was 26 percent, compared to 44 percent for students who were not offered money for correct answers.

Participants were also less prone to computational error when the problems were easier or the results seemingly illogical. Students presented with a base price of $100 from which to calculate the double discount were less likely to make an error than students presented with a base price of $80. Similarly, the researchers asked participants to calculate either a double percentage decrease of 70% and 45% or a price increase of the same percentages. Those who mistakenly added the figures in the decrease condition were confronted with a decrease of 115%, and were more likely to make errors than those confronted with a 115% increase (explained as a change in gasoline prices).

“Since this computational error can potentially influence peoples’ judgment in a variety of settings, the economic impact of such errors on consumer welfare may be substantial,” Chen and Rao write.

The researchers also point to policy implications of computational error outside of consumer settings, such as when a 70% increase followed by a 60% decrease in statewide test scores is considered positive, even though the net effect on test scores is a 32% decrease.

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Banner Ads Work -- Even If You Don't Notice Them at All

The majority of advertising exposure occurs when the audience’s attention is focused elsewhere, such as while flipping through a magazine or browsing a web site. However, a new study reveals that even this incidental exposure to advertising may have a positive effect on consumer attitudes. Forthcoming in the June issue of the Journal of Consumer Research, the study revises existing theories of exposure advertising, specifically repeated views of web-based banner ads.

"Effects of mere exposure are expected to grow in a marketplace where consumers’ attention is often focused elsewhere," write Xiang Fang (Oklahoma State University), Surendra Singh (University of Kansas), and Rohini Ahluwalia (University of Minnesota). "Regardless of measured click-through rates, banner ads may still create a favorable attitude toward the ad due to repeated exposure."

The researchers investigated whether "mere exposure effect," a condition in which people develop a positive perception of stimuli not presented to them on a noticeable level, was also applicable to incidental advertising. In a series of experiments, the researchers discovered that even if people could not recall the content of the ad, repeated exposure led to familiarity, which then led to positive feelings.

"Our research could have important theoretical and practical implications. Theoretically, it enhances our understanding of the process underlying the mere exposure effect. Practically, it provides some useful guidelines for advertisers to develop more accurate measures of banner ad effectiveness," the authors write.

Participants had more positive evaluations toward the target banner ad as exposure frequency increased. Surprisingly, participants also showed high levels of tolerance for banner ads on which they were not directly focused. According to the researchers, even after twenty exposures, common wear-out effects were not apparent.

"Our results suggest that the fluency resulting from frequent passive exposure and the consequent spontaneous affective reaction provide a crucial link between exposure and positive impressions," write the authors. "Such spontaneous affect influenced evaluative judgments through a more complex process, likely by coloring the interpretation of the fluency experience and the nature of resulting metacognitions relating fluency with liking."

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License to Sin?

A new study by researchers from Duke, USC, and UPenn is the first to explore how questioning can affect our behavior when we have mixed feelings about an issue. The study, forthcoming in the June issue of the Journal of Consumer Research, found that asking people questions, like how many times they expect to give in to a temptation they know they should resist, increases how many times they will actually give in to it.

"Research on attitude formation has increasingly recognized that attitudes can be comprised of separate negative and positive components which can result in attitude ambivalence," explain Gavin Fitzsimons (Duke University), Joseph Nunes (University of Southern California), and Patti Williams (University of Pennsylvania). "In the present research we focus on vice behaviors, those for which consumers are likely to hold both positive and negative attitudes. We demonstrate that asking consumers to report their expectations regarding how often they will perform a vice behavior increases the incidence of these behaviors."

Intention questions are generally perceived as harmless, and the researchers found that this may cause consumers to lower the guard they would otherwise have with more explicitly persuasive pitches, such as advertising. In a series of three experiments, they demonstrate that seemingly benign questioning may serve as a liberating influence that allows consumers to give in to their desires more often than they would have otherwise.

For example, the researchers asked a group of actual college students how often they intended to skip class in the following week. Another control group of students was asked how often they intended to floss. Over the course of a semester, the group that was asked how often they intended to miss class ended up with one more absence, on average, than the group that was not asked.

As the authors explain: "Despite very real negative repercussions, respondents to a question about their future class attendance engaged in the negative behavior (missing class) at a significantly greater rate than those not asked to predict their behavior."

The results were especially pronounced for those with chronically low self-control, and the researchers point out that their findings pose a public policy dilemma for survey researchers who ask questions about vice behaviors in order to gain insight and discourage them.

"Fortunately, we also document two moderators of the effect that can prevent intention questions from exacerbating indulgences in vices," the researchers write, "(a) having people explicitly consider strategies for how they might avoid the behavior, and (b) having people create a self-reward for sticking with their stated usage patterns."

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Nanotech Could Become Polarizing Like Nuclear Power

Nanotechnology, the science of assembling materials and machines at the atomic scale at a size less than the width of a human hair, may seem very futuristic and exciting. But if not managed properly, it could scare and stir up emotions like nuclear power or global warming, according to a professor at Yale Law School.

"The U.S. public'sperception of nanotechnology is up for grabs. It could divide along the lines of nuclear power, global warming and other contentious environmental issues absent a major public education and engagement effort by industry, government, civic groups and scientists. People who know little or nothing about 'nanotechnology' instantly react in an emotionally charged way to theconcept, and their opinions divide along cultural lines as they learn more about it," says Dan Kahan.

From drugs and medicine to improved technology on the battlefield, nano-engineering has the potential to dramatically improve life -- but only if people aren't scared off first. And nanotechnology is already on its way.

Nanotechnology is the ability to measure, see, manipulate and manufacture things usually between 1 and 100 nanometers. A nanometer is one billionth of a meter; a human hair is roughly 100,000 nanometers wide. Morethan $30 billion in products incorporating nanotechnology were sold globally in 2005. By 2014, Lux Research estimates this figure will grow to$2.6 trillion.

Kahan's conclusions are based on the findings of a new web-based public opinion survey of U.S. public perceptions of nanotechnology.

"Essentially, when asked what they think about this new technology, Americans go with their gut instinct -- which usually reflects their views toward other issues like climate change and nuclear power. When they learn more, they tend to adopt a stance about nanotechnology that fits their political and cultural predispositions," says Kahan, one of the principal investigators in the study.

"Nothing in our findings suggests that public polarization over nanotechnology is inevitable," says Don Braman, a professor at The George Washington University. "Our results indicate that another outcome ispossible but unlikely unless government, business, and educators take amore proactive approach to nanotechnology public engagement and communication."

The results from this study of 1,800 persons who were recruited to participate in an online survey experiment were released by the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.

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